Chapter I – THE HISTORY OF HEMA

What is HEMA?

HEMA stands for Historical European Martial Arts, understood as the art of using weapons originating from Europe, primarily based on medieval and early modern combat systems. Today, these have been reconstructed and transformed into various forms of practice.

Image: A new edition of “Gladiatoria,” c. 1440.

Blossfechten and Harnischfechten

Let us look at HEMA through the lens of weapon techniques and how they are reconstructed. We distinguish two main forms of practice:
› armored combat, known as Harnischfechten
› unarmored combat, known as Blossfechten

Illustrations from MS Ludwig XV 13, c. 1404.

Historical sources that have survived to this day and describe these techniques are called treatises. One of the most renowned authors of such works was Fiore Furlano de’i Liberi, active between 1381–1409 in Italy and beyond. He wrote about his natural predisposition for martial arts and how he began training at a young age, learning from Italian and German masters. He fought in real combat, but also traveled across Italy teaching fencing while writing his works. The time and place of Fiore’s death remain unknown.

I mention him because he was the first master whose work strongly influenced the development of fencing in Europe. Four copies of his work have survived:
› Pisania Dossi MS
› MS M.383
› MS Latin 11269
› and my favorite, mainly because of the illustrations – MS Ludwig XV 13


Fiore’s book is divided into several sections:
› abrazare (wrestling),
› daga (unarmed defense and dagger fighting),
› spada a un mano (single-handed sword, with or without shield),
› spada a dui mani (two-handed sword),
› spada en arme (sword in armor),
› azza (poleaxe in armor),
› lancia (spear and staff),
› walki konne (with various weapons)
› and several sections combining these techniques.


Fiore’s unarmored techniques focus on many cuts complemented by thrusts, leaving unprotected body parts vulnerable to injury. Armored fighting techniques, on the other hand, concentrate on exploiting weak points in the armor and skillful use of half-swording. Plate armor, due to its weight and rigidity, limits speed and mobility compared to unarmored combat. It is also worth noting that many Blossfechten techniques would not be particularly dangerous against someone in full armor.

Other Great Masters of HEMA

Fiore Furlano de’i Liberi (Italian school) was not the only so-called great master of HEMA. Others worth mentioning include: Johannes Liechtenauer (late 14th – early 15th c., German school) Hans Talhoffer (15th c.) Joachim Meyer (1537–1571, German school) Achille Marozzo (late 15th – early 16th c., Italian school) Domenico Angelo (1716–1802, English school)


Having studied the old treatises, I have highlighted manuscripts that remain quite popular in the HEMA world and, in my opinion, have the greatest practical value:
› the already mentioned Fior di Battaglia by Fiore – essentially a complete manual of medieval fencing
› Liechtenauer’s Zettel – the absolute foundation of the German tradition, from which hundreds of techniques and interpretations are derived
› Fechtbuch (Talhoffer’s manuscripts) – richly illustrated, also depicting rituals, preparations, and fencing attire
› Opera Nova dell’Arte delle Armi by Marozzo – one of the first printed treatises on Renaissance Italian fencing
› and of course Joachim Meyer’s Gründtliche Beschreibung der Kunst des Fechtens – a compendium that unites the German and Italian traditions. It is the most systematic and best-preserved fencing treatise in history.

I would also mention the group known as the Gladiatoria manuscripts – a series of 15th-century German texts focusing on armored fencing. Although they are roughly contemporary with Liechtenauer’s work, they are independent and represent a different German martial tradition.

Among them is Ms Germ.Quart.16, which is particularly close to me since the original is held at the Jagiellonian Library in Kraków. This square-format manuscript presents various types of combat: with spears, swords, daggers, shields, and wrestling.

Techniques and Modern HEMA Equipment

From all this, we can conclude that modern HEMA equipment primarily serves to enhance safety in unarmored techniques. At the same time, it should not significantly restrict mobility or the dynamics of movement. Additional armor could make proper execution of techniques more difficult, regardless of the practitioner’s skill level.

Most HEMA practitioners must balance training with their professional careers. They cannot afford injuries, which makes it even more important that their chosen equipment is both highly mobile and capable of absorbing impacts effectively.

In the next chapter, I will explore this issue further. I will discuss the modern history of HEMA, and explain what both minimal and maximal protective gear for HEMA practice should look like, depending on the needs and combat techniques.